Abstract
The study explored syntactic complexity variations in English RA abstracts written by native Arabic authors residing in the Arab world and international authors from various contexts. The study analyzed three specialized corpora of 600 English abstracts. Each corpus comprised 200 abstracts by Middle Eastern Arabs, North African Arabs (MENA), and international authors, with a total of 111,645 words across all three corpora.
Using the L2SCA developed by Lu (2010), several procedures were undertaken to analyze the data from the three corpora. Fourteen measures of syntactic complexity grouped in five categories were implemented, and the data were then entered into SPSS Statistics software as dependent variables with the three corpora as independent variables to identify any possible differences via analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests.
The findings revealed significant differences among the three corpora in their scores on the five aspects of syntactic complexity. For instance, the international corpus showed a longer length of production unit and more subordinations than the MENA corpora. Overall, the sentence complexity of international abstracts was higher than that of the MENA abstracts.
Practical implications for Arabic learners and other learners with respect to writing pedagogy in English for research publication purposes will be discussed.
References
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Bi, P., & Jiang, J. (2020). Syntactic complexity in assessing young adolescent EFL learners’ writings: Syntactic elaboration and diversity. System, 91, 102248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102248
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Chen, Y.-H., & Baker, P. (2010). Lexical bundles in L1 and L2 academic writing. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 30–49.
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Foster, P., & Tavakoli, P. (2009). Native Speakers and Task Performance: Comparing Effects on Complexity, Fluency, and Lexical Diversity. Language Learning, 59(4), 866–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00528.x
Hinkel, E. (2003). Simplicity without Elegance: Features of Sentences in L1 and L2 Academic Texts. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 275. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588505
House, J. (2009). Subjectivity in English as Lingua Franca discourse: The case of you know. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1515/IPRG.2009.010
Hyland, K. (2009). Teaching and researching writing (2. ed). Longman.
Hyland, K. (2015). Academic publishing: Issues and challenges in the construction of knowledge. Oxford University Press.
Hyland, K. (2016). Academic publishing and the myth of linguistic injustice. Journal of Second Language Writing, 31, 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2016.01.005
Jenkins, J. (2012). The phonology of English as an international language: New models, new norms, new goals (Nachdr.). Oxford Univ. Press.
Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a Lingua Franca. Englishes in Practice, 2(3), 49–85. https://doi.org/10.1515/eip-2015-0003
Kuiken, F., Vedder, I., Housen, A., & De Clercq, B. (2019). Variation in syntactic complexity: Introduction. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 29, 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12255
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1978). An ESL Index of Development. TESOL Quarterly, 12(4), 439. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586142
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Adjusting Expectations: The Study of Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 579–589. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp043
Li, L.-J., & Ge, G.-C. (2009). Genre analysis: Structural and linguistic evolution of the English-medium medical research article (1985–2004). English for Specific Purposes, 28(2), 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2008.12.004
Lu, X. (2010). Automatic analysis of syntactic complexity in second language writing. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 15(4), 474–496. https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.15.4.02lu
Lu, X. (2011). A Corpus-Based Evaluation of Syntactic Complexity Measures as Indices of College-Level ESL Writers’ Language Development. TESOL Quarterly, 45(1), 36–62. https://doi.org/10.5054/tq.2011.240859
Lu, X., & Ai, H. (2015). Syntactic complexity in college-level English writing: Differences among writers with diverse L1 backgrounds. Journal of Second Language Writing, 29, 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2015.06.003
Mancilla, R. L., Polat, N., & Akcay, A. O. (2017). An Investigation of Native and Nonnative English Speakers’ Levels of Written Syntactic Complexity in Asynchronous Online Discussions. Applied Linguistics, 38(1), 112–134. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv012
Mauranen, A. (2003). The Corpus of English as Lingua Franca in Academic Settings. TESOL Quarterly, 37(3), 513. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588402
Mauranen, A. (2007). Hybrid voices: English as the lingua franca of academics. In K. Flottum (Ed.), Language and discipline perspectives on academic discourse (pp. 244–259). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Mauranen, A. (2010). Features of English as a lingua franca in academia. Helsinki English Studies, 6, 6–28.
McCambridge, L. (2015). Academic writing in an ELF environment: Standardization, accommodation-or transformation? In T. Lillis, K. Harrington, M. R. Lea, & S. Mitchell (Eds.), Perspectives on Writing (pp. 185–193). Parlor Press.
O’Donnell, R. C. (1974). Syntactic Differences between Speech and Writing. American Speech, 49(1/2), 102. https://doi.org/10.2307/3087922
Ong, J., & Zhang, L. J. (2010). Effects of task complexity on the fluency and lexical complexity in EFL students’ argumentative writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 19(4), 218–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2010.10.003
Ortega, L. (2003). Syntactic Complexity Measures and their Relationship to L2 Proficiency: A Research Synthesis of College-level L2 Writing. Applied Linguistics, 24(4), 492–518. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.4.492
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59(4), 339–341. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cci064
Thompson, P. (2005). Points of focus and position: Intertextual reference in PhD theses. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(4), 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2005.07.006
Wolfe-Quintero, K., Inagaki, S., & Kim, H.-Y. (1998). Second language development in writing: Measures of fluency, accuracy, & complexity. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Wood, A. (2001). International scientific English: The language of research scientists around the world. In J. Flowerdew & M. Peacock (Eds.), Research perspectives on English for academic purposes (1. publ, pp. 71–83). Cambridge Univ. Press.
Wu, X., Mauranen, A., & Lei, L. (2020). Syntactic complexity in English as a lingua franca academic writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 43, 100798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2019.100798
Yin, S., Gao, Y., & Lu, X. (2021). Syntactic complexity of research article part-genres: Differences between emerging and expert international publication writers. System, 97, 102427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102427
Ansarifar, A., Shahriari, H., & Pishghadam, R. (2018). Phrasal complexity in academic writing: A comparison of abstracts written by graduate students and expert writers in applied linguistics. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 31, 58–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.12.008
Bi, P., & Jiang, J. (2020). Syntactic complexity in assessing young adolescent EFL learners’ writings: Syntactic elaboration and diversity. System, 91, 102248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102248
Biber, D., & Gray, B. (2010). Challenging stereotypes about academic writing: Complexity, elaboration, explicitness. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 9(1), 2–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2010.01.001
Bjork, B.-C., Roos, A., & Lauri, M. (2009). Scientific Journal Publishing: Yearly Volume and Open Access Availability. Information Research: An International Electronic Journal, 14(1), 1–14.
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge University Press.
Bulté, B., & Housen, A. (2012). Defining and operationalising L2 complexity. In A. Housen, F. Kuiken, & I. Vedder (Eds.), Dimensions of L2 Performance and Proficiency: Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in SLA (Vol. 32, pp. 21–46). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.32.02bul
Casal, J. E., & Lee, J. J. (2019). Syntactic complexity and writing quality in assessed first-year L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 44, 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2019.03.005
Chang, P., & Schleppegrell, M. (2011). Taking an effective authorial stance in academic writing: Making the linguistic resources explicit for L2 writers in the social sciences. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 10(3), 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2011.05.005
Chen, Y.-H., & Baker, P. (2010). Lexical bundles in L1 and L2 academic writing. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 30–49.
Cheung, H., & Kemper, S. (1992). Competing complexity metrics and adults’ production of complex sentences. Applied Psycholinguistics, 13(1), 53–76. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400005427
Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012). Analyzing English as a lingua franca: A corpus-driven investigation. Continuum.
Crossley, S. A., & McNamara, D. S. (2014). Does writing development equal writing quality? A computational investigation of syntactic complexity in L2 learners. Journal of Second Language Writing, 26, 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2014.09.006
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511486999
ELFA. (2008). The Corpus of English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings. Director: Anna Mauranen. http://www.helsinki.fi/elfa
Ellis, R. (2009). The Differential Effects of Three Types of Task Planning on the Fluency, Complexity, and Accuracy in L2 Oral Production. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 474–509. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp042
Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality: On ‘lingua franca’ English and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 26(2), 237–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(96)00014-8
Flowerdew, J. (2015). Some thoughts on English for Research Publication Purposes (ERPP) and related issues. Language Teaching, 48(2), 250–262. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444812000523
Foster, P., & Tavakoli, P. (2009). Native Speakers and Task Performance: Comparing Effects on Complexity, Fluency, and Lexical Diversity. Language Learning, 59(4), 866–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00528.x
Hinkel, E. (2003). Simplicity without Elegance: Features of Sentences in L1 and L2 Academic Texts. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 275. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588505
House, J. (2009). Subjectivity in English as Lingua Franca discourse: The case of you know. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1515/IPRG.2009.010
Hyland, K. (2009). Teaching and researching writing (2. ed). Longman.
Hyland, K. (2015). Academic publishing: Issues and challenges in the construction of knowledge. Oxford University Press.
Hyland, K. (2016). Academic publishing and the myth of linguistic injustice. Journal of Second Language Writing, 31, 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2016.01.005
Jenkins, J. (2012). The phonology of English as an international language: New models, new norms, new goals (Nachdr.). Oxford Univ. Press.
Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism in English as a Lingua Franca. Englishes in Practice, 2(3), 49–85. https://doi.org/10.1515/eip-2015-0003
Kuiken, F., Vedder, I., Housen, A., & De Clercq, B. (2019). Variation in syntactic complexity: Introduction. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 29, 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12255
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1978). An ESL Index of Development. TESOL Quarterly, 12(4), 439. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586142
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Adjusting Expectations: The Study of Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 579–589. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp043
Li, L.-J., & Ge, G.-C. (2009). Genre analysis: Structural and linguistic evolution of the English-medium medical research article (1985–2004). English for Specific Purposes, 28(2), 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2008.12.004
Lu, X. (2010). Automatic analysis of syntactic complexity in second language writing. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 15(4), 474–496. https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.15.4.02lu
Lu, X. (2011). A Corpus-Based Evaluation of Syntactic Complexity Measures as Indices of College-Level ESL Writers’ Language Development. TESOL Quarterly, 45(1), 36–62. https://doi.org/10.5054/tq.2011.240859
Lu, X., & Ai, H. (2015). Syntactic complexity in college-level English writing: Differences among writers with diverse L1 backgrounds. Journal of Second Language Writing, 29, 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2015.06.003
Mancilla, R. L., Polat, N., & Akcay, A. O. (2017). An Investigation of Native and Nonnative English Speakers’ Levels of Written Syntactic Complexity in Asynchronous Online Discussions. Applied Linguistics, 38(1), 112–134. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amv012
Mauranen, A. (2003). The Corpus of English as Lingua Franca in Academic Settings. TESOL Quarterly, 37(3), 513. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588402
Mauranen, A. (2007). Hybrid voices: English as the lingua franca of academics. In K. Flottum (Ed.), Language and discipline perspectives on academic discourse (pp. 244–259). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Mauranen, A. (2010). Features of English as a lingua franca in academia. Helsinki English Studies, 6, 6–28.
McCambridge, L. (2015). Academic writing in an ELF environment: Standardization, accommodation-or transformation? In T. Lillis, K. Harrington, M. R. Lea, & S. Mitchell (Eds.), Perspectives on Writing (pp. 185–193). Parlor Press.
O’Donnell, R. C. (1974). Syntactic Differences between Speech and Writing. American Speech, 49(1/2), 102. https://doi.org/10.2307/3087922
Ong, J., & Zhang, L. J. (2010). Effects of task complexity on the fluency and lexical complexity in EFL students’ argumentative writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 19(4), 218–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2010.10.003
Ortega, L. (2003). Syntactic Complexity Measures and their Relationship to L2 Proficiency: A Research Synthesis of College-level L2 Writing. Applied Linguistics, 24(4), 492–518. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.4.492
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59(4), 339–341. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cci064
Thompson, P. (2005). Points of focus and position: Intertextual reference in PhD theses. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(4), 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2005.07.006
Wolfe-Quintero, K., Inagaki, S., & Kim, H.-Y. (1998). Second language development in writing: Measures of fluency, accuracy, & complexity. Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Wood, A. (2001). International scientific English: The language of research scientists around the world. In J. Flowerdew & M. Peacock (Eds.), Research perspectives on English for academic purposes (1. publ, pp. 71–83). Cambridge Univ. Press.
Wu, X., Mauranen, A., & Lei, L. (2020). Syntactic complexity in English as a lingua franca academic writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 43, 100798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2019.100798
Yin, S., Gao, Y., & Lu, X. (2021). Syntactic complexity of research article part-genres: Differences between emerging and expert international publication writers. System, 97, 102427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102427
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